Publications

Objectives: This study investigated the acute effects of pre-exercise cold-water immersion (CWI) on performance, muscle oxygen saturation, and mechanical muscle tension during calf raise training.

Method: Twenty-four trained individuals (5 females, 19 males) were randomly assigned to either a CWI group (5 min at 10 ± 1 °C) or a non-CWI group (no intervention). Both groups performed three sets of standing calf raises to failure using a standardized protocol. Load lifted, repetitions, and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded. Muscle oxygenation (SmO2, total hemoglobin) and mechanical muscle properties (frequency and stiffness) were measured before and after each set.

Results: The CWI group showed a significantly greater increase in barbell load from set 1 to set 2 compared to the non-CWI group (from 94.5 ± 18.1 kg to 98.0 ± 18.7 kg, p < 0.01). Repetitions decreased and RPE increased across sets in both groups. The non-CWI group exhibited earlier increases in muscle stiffness and frequency, whereas these responses were delayed in the CWI group. Gastrocnemius SmO2 increased during the protocol in the non-CWI group only. Total hemoglobin change was greater in the CWI group in set 1.

Conclusions: These findings suggest that pre-exercise CWI may acutely enhance performance and delay neuromuscular fatigue without negatively affecting perceived effort.

Keywords: resistance training, RPE, muscle oxygenation, CWI

This study demonstrates that pre-exercise cold water immersion acutely enhances calf raise performance in resistance-trained individuals. Compared to a non-CWI condition, participants in the CWI group performed more repetitions in the first set and lifted heavier loads across sets. These effects were accompanied by altered muscle oxygenation and delayed neuromuscular responses, suggesting that CWI may optimize early performance during strength training.